The Islamic Umma: Man-Man Relation: The Political Structure of the Umma

Islam:Man-Man Relation: The Political Structure of the Islamic Umma

The political structure of the Islamic Umma, unlike other temporal political structures, is totally dependent on one's commitment to belief in God and following the moral code prescribed in the sources of Islam.

All Authority is Invested in God

All authority is vested in God. No other authority is acceptable or obeyed by Muslims. God is the sole and only lawgiver. No human being is permitted to prescribe his or her laws to the Islamic community.

This is because humans are only held responsible by God. Belief and disbelief is a personal affair between man and God where freedom and will are exercised fully. This vertical relationship is outside the control of the Umma. Communal relations on the vertical level are subject to Islamic legislation and representatives of the Islamic Umma can administer the limits of Shar' whenever the case applies. If a person commits a crime punishable by Shar', the responsibility of this person is towards God, and punishment is administered by the Islamic community represented by the administration of Muslims. The punishment administered by the representatives of the Umma should be strictly applied according to Islamic limits.

God's Law

Legislation, if not prescribed in the sources of Islam, must stem from the sources and conform to its prescriptions. Exegetes are obliged to infer legislations that conform to the spirit and form of Islamic Shari'a before it is promulgated by the Umma.

The basics of the political aspects of Islam are mainly concerned with the Muslim's interrelations stemming from the Muslim's relation with God. The notion of rule is non-existent in Islam since man is held responsible only to God. Obedience to those who are chosen, by Muslims, to administer the affairs of the community is maintained in public affairs as long as administrators adhere strictly Islamic laws and precepts. Any infringement by the administrators from Islamic precepts renders Muslims free from obedience to these administrators until the administrators apply Islamic shari'a. The system of checks and balances is strongly held, applied and controlled by the whole Islamic Umma.

No one person (one-man-rule), a group (civil, military or religious) or one section of Muslims (a party) is allowed to have control of power. Power is equally distributed among the whole community of Muslims. Administration of Islamic rule does not give the administrators any powers or control over Muslims. The administration body serves the community in their interests, security and affairs.

Ruling is Alien in Islam

There is no mention in the Qur'an or Hadith of the idea of rule over Muslims, nor is there any mention of the necessity for a ruler or governor that Muslims have to submit their will to him or to her. The Islamic principle calls for equality and no person has the right to rule over another. No one Muslim or a group of Muslims have the right to exercise authority or control, whether physically, psychologically, mentally or spiritually over any other Muslim or a group of Muslims or the entire Umma. The Qur'anic text denies any authority or control over the Muslims, or non-Muslims, even to messengers of God.

The function of the messengers of God, according to the Qur'an, is but to remind man with reference to belief in God and the day of reckoning and the consequence of man's deeds.

Muhammad is commanded in the Qur'anic text:

'Therefore, give admonition, for you are one to admonish, you are not one to have control over them.' 88: 21-22.

The Qur'an denies Muhammad all forms of authority, control and compelling:

'And you are not one to compel them by force. So admonish with the Qur'an who fears My warning.' 50: 45

Rule is denied, by way of authority, control, compelling, forcing or governing, in any form. Caliphs, sultans, emirs and other titles have developed in an ad hoc form, all alien to Islamic principles. Reward and punishment for belief or disbelief, good and bad actions, are restricted to God, whether administered in this life or in the hereafter by the divine will. Rule in the judicial sector, referring to legal judgement or arbitration, among Muslims is administered by Muslims versed in Islamic Shari'a and the science of Tafsir (exegetic interpreting knowledge) according to Islamic law.

Although Muslims versed in the knowledge of Shari'a are referred to in order to interpret an Islamic reference, in the Qur'an or the Tradition, they have no power none whatsoever to compel other Muslims.

There is no hierarchical structure in Islam. There is no distinction among Muslims. Distinction among Muslims, or among non-Muslims, is strictly restricted to the domain of God. It is according to men's reaction to belief in God and according to their good or bad deeds that distinction is preserved to God. These domains are not to be judged by humans.

The following texts refer to the mode of arbitration and judgement among Muslims:

'We have sent down to you the Book in truth, that you might judge between men, as guided by God.' 4: 105

'God commands you (O believers) to render back your trusts to those to whom they are due; and if you judge between men that you judge with justice: verily is the best of teaching which God teaches you, and God sees and hears all things.' 4: 58

Individuals, once they have accepted Islam are obliged to apply Islamic law:

'A believer, man or woman, has no option in determining their affairs when God and His apostle decide the matter. He who disobeys God and His apostle has gone clearly astray.' 33: 36

It is clear in this reference that the command administered in the Qur'anic text is to be obeyed. But the free choice of complying with the command is left entirely to the believer himself. It is exactly in the same way where the freedom of choice of belief and disbelief are given choice to obey or disobey is also given with reference to the Muslim himself.

Authority in Man-God relationship

Islam denotes a state of knowledge. For knowledge, according to Islam, is being aware of the truth that there is one God (Christian doctrine of the trinity is denied totally in Islam as (kufr: rejection of truth). Any other state is described by Islam as ignorance. Man thus is in a state of ignorance until he becomes aware of the existence of one God and chooses to believe in God where he enters a state of knowledge. Man who is in an extra state of knowledge ('ilm) remains in a state of ignorance (jahl) until he becomes a Muslim. A Muslim is considered in a state of knowledge because he or she is aware of the purpose of his own existence:

'It is those who have knowledge that truly fear God amongst His servants.' 35: 28

'Say: Are those equal those who know and those who do not know? It is those who understand that keep constant remembrance.' 39: 9

The purpose of man's existence is to acknowledge one God and apply His law in accordance with any divine scripture.

The Muslim-God relationship is a relationship of dependence: Man depends totally on God.

God as the only ruler

From this acknowledgement and total dependence stems the authority of God. The Qur'an informs us:

'God, there is no god be He, the Lord of the Throne supreme.' 27: 26

'Lord of the heavens and earth and all that is between them, so worship Him and be constant and patient in His worship: do you know of any who is worthy of the same name as He?' 19: 65

'There is no god but He, He gives life and gives death, your Lord and the Lord of your earliest ancestors.' 44: 8

The Muslim considers God as his protector, trustee and ally (wali):

'Say: 'Shall I seek for lord other than God, when He is the Lord of all things'.' 6: 164

'Say: 'My worship and my sacrifice and my living and my dying are for God the Lord of the Universe.' 6: 162

And,

'O my Lord, You are my protector in this world and in the hereafter.' 12: 101

'Say: 'Shall I seek for Lord other than God, and He is the Lord of all things?' 6: 164

Muslims have no other than God as protector and helper:

'You have none, beside God, as protector or helper.' 2: 107

'And God is the protector of those who believe.' 3: 68

Muslims are forbidden to take as protectors other than God:

'Say: 'Who is the Lord of the heavens and the earth?'

'Say: 'God', Say:' Do you then take for protectors other than Him, such as have no power either for good or for harm to themselves?'' 13: 16

Only God as a Lord

Muslims are forbidden to take each others as lords:

'Say: 'that we worship none but God, that we associate no partners with Him, that we do not take from among ourselves lords and patrons other than God.' 3: 64

The Qur'an forbids Muslims to take the messengers of God and the angels as lords:

'And he does not command you to take the angels and the apostles as lords. Would he command you to disbelieve after you became Muslims?' 3: 80

Christians, according to the Qur'an, take Gabriel for the Holy Ghost and associate him with Christ and God in a Trinity. Jews and Christian have taken their rabies and their clergy as their lords. Such a practice is not permitted in Islam:

'They took their rabbis and their monks as lords beside God, and the Messiah-son-of-Mary, but they were not commanded except to worship one God, there is no god but He. Far away is His glory from what they associate (with Him).' 9: 31

The idea of taking prophets and angels as lords, as Christians do, is denied in Islam:

'It is not permitted for a man, to whom is given the Scriptures and wisdom, to say: 'Be my worshippers rather than God's', but 'be worshippers of Him.' 3: 79

'Nor would he (the Prophet) instruct you to take angels and prophets for lords, would he bid you to disbelief after you became Muslims?' 3: 80

Muslims are strictly forbidden to take Satan as a protector and lord:

"Whoever takes Satan as a protector, forsaking God, he has suffered a manifest loss. Satan makes them promises and builds for them false desires, but Satan's promises are nothing but deception.' 4: 119- 120

The Qur'an constantly denies the Muslims to take any other thing as lords and protectors beside God:

'There are men who take others besides God as equal with God; they love them as they should love God. But those who believe are stronger in their love for God.' 2: 165

'The parable of those who take protectors other than God is that of the spider who builds for itself a house: but surely the weakest of houses is the spider's house, if they only new.' 29: 41

The command of God

Muslims submit themselves to the command of God only. The Qur'an informs us:

'They have no protectors other than Him, nor does He share His command with anyone.' 18: 26

'The command is but for God, in Him I put my trust and let those who trust put their trust in Him.' 12: 76

Muslims cannot take disbelievers as friends or trustees:

'O you who believe, do not take for friends and trustees unbelievers rather than believers.' 4: 144

'Those who take for friends and trustees unbelievers rather than believers: do they seek honour among them? No, all honour is with God.' 4: 139

In these verses reference is made in terms of the general to the attitude of believers towards disbelievers. Such a command is denied to Muslims even though the disbelievers are of close kinship:

'O you who believe, do not take for friends and trustees your fathers and your brothers if they prefer disbelief to belief: if any of you takes them as such than those are the transgressors.' 9: 23

Reference in the particular is made to the Jews and the Christians, who do not believe in the Islamic message:

'O you who believe, do not take the Jews and the Christians for friends and trustees, they are but friends and trustees of each other. And he amongst you who takes them as such is but of them.' 5: 51

Particular reference is also made to those among the People of the Book among the Jews and Christians who take the religion of Islam for mockery:

'O you who believe, do not take for friends and trustees those who take your religion for a mockery and sport of those who received the Book before you and the disbelievers, and fear God if you are true believers.' 5: 57

Particular reference is made to those who are considered to be the enemies of God. Muslims are not allowed to take them as friends and trustees:

'O you who believe, do not take My enemies and yours for friends and trustees, offering them love, even though they have disbelieved in the truth that has come to you.' 40: 1

In the final conclusion the Qur'anic text specifies the difference between taking those who disbelieve as friends and partners on the one hand and taking God as the only protector on the other:

'God is the protector of those who believe, He brings them out from darkness into light, and those who reject faith their patrons are the evil ones, they lead them from light into darkness; these are the companions of the fire, therein they shall dwell forever.' 2: 257

Any other command than that of God should not be accepted by Muslims and any other judgement than that of God should be rejected by Muslims:

'Do they then seek the judgement of ignorance, and who is, for those who believe, better in judgement than God?' 5: 53

Those who do not apply the law of God in conducting their affairs and in their private life are considered by the Qur'an as no better than the unbelievers:

'And if anyone does not judge by what God has revealed they are no better than the unbelievers.' 5: 44

They are also considered as wrong-doers:

'And if any do not judge by what God has revealed they are no better than wrong-doers.' 5: 45

'And if any do not judge by what God has revealed they are no better than transgressors.' 5: 47

Muslims have no option but to apply Islamic law:

'No believer, man or woman, when God and His Apostle decide a matter, can have an option about their decision: if any one disobeys God and His messenger, he has clearly gone astray.' 33: 36

'The answer of the believers, when summoned to God and His messenger, in order that he (the messenger) may judge among them, is to say: "We hear and we obey", and those are the ones who will attain felicity, it is such as obey God and fear God and do what is right that will be the winners.' 24: 51-52

'The messenger believes in what has been revealed to him from His Lord, and so do the believers, each one of them believes in God, His angels, His books, and His messengers, (and they say): "We make no distinction between one and another of His messengers", and they say: "We hear and obey, we seek Your forgiveness our Lord, and to You is the end of all."' 2: 285

Obedience is only due to God

Obedience to God's command is considered as a fulfilling part of the covenant with God:

'O You who believe' call in remembrance the favour of God unto you, and His Covenant which he ratified with you when you said: "We hear and we obey" and fear God, for God knows the secrets of your hearts.' 5: 7

The idea of compulsion is not allowed in Islam. No Muslim may compel another person whether Muslim or non-Muslim to believe or to obey God. Muslims may invite others, whether Muslims or non-Muslims, on the way of God through good speech. We are told in the Qur'an how the message ought to be administered as an admonition and reminder and how the role of the messenger is to admonish:

'So obey God and obey His messenger: but if you turn back, the duty of Our messenger is but to proclaim clearly the message.' 64: 12

If Muslims follow the teachings in the message they are rightly guided. But if they do not they shall be held to account for their deed:

'Say: "Obey God and obey the messenger. But if you turn away, then (it is) for him (to do) only wherewith he has been charged, and for you (to do) only that wherewith you have been charged. If you obey him, you will go aright. And the messenger has no other charge than to convey (the message) clearly."' 24: 54

This text obviously gives the freedom of choice between obedience and disobedience. Thus, we observe that Islamic precepts should be implemented by Muslims but they always have the choice to obey or not to obey. For the real nature of the message is to remind man of what he ought to do.

Should Muslims do not take heed they are allowed to do so, for there is no compulsion in religion, despite all the responsibility they have to take and the consequences of their choice:

'Those are the limits set by God: Those who obey God and His messenger shall be admitted to Gardens, with rivers flowing beneath to abide therein forever, and that will be the supreme achievement.' 4: 13

On the other hand, the consequences of those who disobey His commands and transgress His limits are displayed clearly in the text:

'But those who will disobey God and His commands and His messenger and transgress His limits shall be admitted to the fire, to abide therein forever, and they shall have a humiliating punishment.' 4: 14

In Islam obedience to the messenger stems from obedience to God. The Law giver is only God. In the sources of Islam there is no one reference to Muhammad as a lawgiver.

This specific restriction of law to God is denoted in the following verse:

'Nor does he speak (Muhammad) of (his own) desire. It is naught save an inspiration that is inspired.' 53: 3-4

The idea of prophethood in the Qur'an presents the messengers as conveyers of the divine message and not as lawgivers:

'Their messengers said to them: "We are human like yourselves, but God grants His grace to whoever He pleases of His servants. It is not for us to bring you an authority except as God permits."' 14: 11

No other authority is given to the messengers:

'No man, to whom is given the Book, and Wisdom and Prophethood, can say to people: "Be you my worshippers rather than God's", but he would say: "Be you worshippers of Him." 3: 79

Muhammad is considered in the Qur'an in the following manner:

'Say: "I am but a man like you, it is revealed to me by inspiration that your God is one God: so stand true to him, and ask for His forgiveness". And woe to those who join gods with God.' 41: 6

The idea of obedience to God is expressed in terms of obedience to His messengers. For the words of the messengers as well as their deeds are inspired by God. Islam does not consider the messengers as infallible, for no man is infallible according to the Qur'an.

Muslims should comply by the command of God as revealed in the Qur'an and the Sunna conforming to Islamic Shari'a:

'O Believers, obey God, and obey His messenger and those who are charged with the affairs among you, But should you have a dispute concerning any matter, then refer it to God and the messenger, If you believe in God and the Last day. That is better and more suitable as an interpretation.' 4: 59

In this way the ultimate reference is God's law. Muslims share equally in the responsibility of running their affairs. All matters are settled by Islamic Shari'a. if there are matters that are not dealt with by Shari'a then all Muslims comprising the Islamic Umma must deal with the affairs through the principle of Shura (mutual consultation).

The concept of Shura

As discussed above the idea of rule is alien to Islam. Muslims manage their affairs whether public or private, by mutual consultation. This concept is indicated in the sources of Islam by:

A. The absence of reference to the need to establish a post of a ruler, or rulers, over the Muslims in the Qur'an and Tradition of the Prophet.

B. The absence of reference to appoint a ruler, or rulers, to run the affairs of the Islamic Umma. The Qur'an is silent on this subject and the Tradition does not indicate any such need.

C. Muhammad did not designate any ruler after him before his death neither explicitly nor implicitly. His companions chose from amongst themselves the first four Caliphs namely Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab, 'Uthman Ibn 'Affan and 'Ali Ibn Abi Talib on an ad hoc basis. The Qur'an and the Sunna do prescribe any post neither by designation nor by heritage or succession in term neither of Khalifa nor of Imam, neither of Sultan nor of an Emir or a King or any form of a ruler.

Such institutions where one man decide for the Muslims their affairs is against the basic teachings of Islam. The affairs of the Muslims are run by the Muslims themselves in a mutual consultative manner in accordance to al-Shari'a. They choose from amongst themselves responsible for all affairs whether political, economic or social and military, but the final decision is decided by all the Muslims in accordance with the Islamic Shar'. The function of the responsible is to apply shar' and then the will of the majority of Muslims should there be no total consensus in accordance to Shari'a.

This type of managing the affairs of the Umma was once fully practiced in Islamic history. This was at the time of Muhammad during the epoch of Medina 620-632 AD.

All Muslims were called upon to decide their affairs and especially regional and military affairs. The final decision was taken after consulting with all Muslims. All Muslims practiced their responsibility for the final decision where it was implemented by all. This system put into practice the idealistic model of the Islamic Umma.

However; it can be argued that the Islamic Umma was a small community and now (a community of over one billion Muslims in the world today) it is impossible to put it into practice. But even though the Umma is large and spread all over the globe, it must come together first, into consensus, and with the present stage of knowledge it allows by means of a referenda system to implement the shura principle. But the different deviations in Islam and the multiple innovations, as well as abandoning the spirit of Islam and getting attached to worldly life, impedes the realisation of such a pragmatic-idealist model. Today, the multiple divisions within the Islamic Umma does not allow for such a practice.

In Islamic history the one-man-rule has nearly destroyed the spirit of Islam in the hearts of Muslims.

The one man ruler has proven an unjust imposition of personal individualistic will, often temporal and egoist in nature, depriving Muslims from their rights and responsibilities in managing the affairs of the entire Umma.

The underlying bases of the concept of Shura are that All Muslims contribute equally to the running of their community affairs. The Qur'anic text is clear on this. The text does not indicate a ruler with a clique of advisors, It does not either indicate a 'counsel' of few Muslims, It does not refer to one section of Muslims ruling over the others. It does not refer to a minority or a majority, but the reference is in the total general implicating every Muslim.

The Qur'anic text prescribing the principle of shura defines the idea of managing the Umma's affairs in the following terms:

'Those who believe'and those who answer the call of their Lord and establish prayers and conduct their affairs by mutual consultation (amruhum shura baynahum), and who spend of what We have bestowed on them.' 42: 36, 38

In this text the address is made to All Muslims without exception. Neither the Qur'an nor the Hadith defines or prescribes a specific system of rule. Administrative systems are chosen by Muslims from amongst themselves and obedience is due to such bodies of administration. This does not mean that the choice is open to establish any other institution than the 'mutual counselling' system. The Qur'an constantly rejects the one man rule system as unjust and calls upon the Muslims to deal justly with one another. The Qur'an sites the Pharaonic system as a bad example and rejects it completely:

'Pharaoh was verily a tyrant in the land, and he verily was of the wanton.' 10: 83

The Qur'an rejects entirely the rule of kings:

'She said: Verily, kings when they enter a township ruin it and make the honour of its people shame.' 27: 34

The Islamic concept of man in a social gathering views him on equal bases with the others. The criterion of excelling in the eyes of God is man's piety. The following text indicates this criterion:

'O mankind, we created you from a single pair of a male and a female. And made you into tribes and nations that you may know each other. Verily, the most honoured of you in the sight of God is he who is most righteous of you, and God has full knowledge and is well acquainted with all things.' 41: 13

The concept of Shura in Islam prescribes the following practices:

i. Every Muslim, as a member of the Islamic Umma must be acquainted with the knowledge of Islam.

ii. Every Muslim being the essential brick in the structure of the Umma is on equal footing with the other Muslims.

iii. Every Muslim has the right and responsibility to share equally in the decision making in managing the affairs of the Umma.

iv. Decisions of the Umma are decided only by mutual consultation among all Muslims.

v. No one person, a group of persons, a minority or a majority should decide the Umma's affairs.

vi. After due mutual consultation decisions are made within the boundaries of Shari'a.

vii. Islamic law is the final reference in the personal as well as public affairs.

viii. Public matters such as war and peace, economy and education should be congruent to Islamic Shar'. Only when there are no clearly defined Islamic texts and the issue is left to the Umma that Muslims vote by means of consultation, counselling systems and referendums, their own decisions.

ix. No delegation or deputization or procuration of power, to one person, or a group of persons, or a party, or a minority nor a majority is allowed; for this indicates denying, as well as forfeiting, one's own rights and responsibilities to share equally in the decision-making of the affairs of the Umma that he is, directly or indirectly, subjected to.

This system of managing public affairs requires multi- sectional systems of counselling that are equal in status and responsibility to all other systems, but allows for practical participation. The Muslim must have the possibility to exercise his rights and responsibilities in the management of the affairs of the whole community.

There is more evidence within the Qur'anic text of the mutual consultation system. The messenger himself, Muhammad, was commanded to consult with the Muslims in managing their affairs. In the following verse we are informed:

'It is through the mercy of God that you deal gently with them. But should you be rough and harsh-hearted they would have broken away from about you: so pass over their faults and ask for God's forgiveness for them, and consult them in the affairs. Then, when you have taken a decision, put your trust in God, for God loves those who put their trust in Him.' 3: 159

In practice, the messenger has always consulted the Muslims in military and social matters and has decided according to the outcome of these consultations. In all cases, of war for example, the opinion of experts who have experience and knowledge was always taken along side the consensus of the Muslims in the concerned matter.

The principle of Shura should not be applied only in public affairs but also in private ones. In the case of weaning, for example, both parents must resolve their problem by mutual consultation:

'If they both decide on weaning, by mutual consent, and after due mutual consultation, then there is no blame on them.' 2: 233

The Islamic Umma is an integral entity where division dissention and dispute must be avoided. Relationships among Muslims must conform to a brotherly and cooperative precept. The following references denote this unity and solidarity among Muslims:

'O you who believe' Obey God and His messenger, and fall not into disputes, lest you lose heart and your power departs; and be patient and persevering.' 8: 46

'As for those who divide up their religion and break up into sects, you have no part in them.' 6: 159

'O you who believe' Help you one another in righteousness and piety, but do not help one another in sin and transgression, and fear God: for God is strict in punishment.' 5: 2

Muslims should be in constant pursuit of Islamic Shari'a and ought not to follow self desires which lead away from the right path. Whoever chooses to follow his own inclinations towards evil is led to conjecture. In the following verses we have such evidence:

'They follow nothing but conjecture, and what their own selves desire.' 53: 23

'But many do mislead men by their self inclinations unchecked by knowledge.' 6: 119

'And do not follow the inclinations of the self, for they will mislead you from the path of God: as for those who wander astray from the path of God there is a grievous penalty, for that they forget the Day of Judgment.' 38: 26

In a non-Muslim model of a society man is in a state of ignorance and he survives in a jungle law. In such model man is need for control and compulsion. A ruler becomes necessary and men are not free but are subject to the dictates of the ruler, be it one person or a group of persons.

In this model the state is without and man is in a state of war against others. Being concerned with worldly gains he is forced into a competitiveness of acquisitiveness and hence in a constant sate of conflict, hatred, competition and survival becomes for the strongest, the most cunning. In such a model evil reigns and every one is for himself promoting his own interests.

The structure of society becomes inimical where brotherhood, cooperation, solidarity and friendliness disappear giving way to enmity, hatred and conflict because of material competitiveness. In such a model a strong and imposing government is needed to keep order and peace.

As we have seen above, Ibn Khaldun, In Taymiyya and al-Mawardi, as well as the Shiite theory of Imama, base their personal suppositions for the absolute need for a one man ruler, on such a society.

Administrative body

In the Islamic Umma an administration is established in order to manage people's affairs in economy, military and social issues. It is the guardian of religion. Its main function is to implement Shari'a and resolve problems of the Muslims according to Islamic law. Its function is to implement also whatever decisions are taken by the Umma with regard to issues that are not denoted by Shari'a as in political issues like war and peace, economic issues where poverty and riches are not allowed and the circulation of wealth should be applied among all Muslims, social issues where status and distinction as well as social hierarchy should not be established. The administration maintains the security of the Umma and applies the hudud (limits referring to Punishment). Education is administered to promote the precepts of Islam. Knowledge in all its branches is open as a duty for every Muslim.

The Muslim as the Basic Unit of the Umma

The basic member of the Islamic Umma is the Muslim. If this Muslim believes in the Qur'an and the Sunna and implements its ordinances then the ideal-pragmatic model of the Umma can be realized.

The second is knowledge of Islam and Shari'a besides one's own profession.

The Qur'an informs us:

'By the token of time, verily man is in loss, except such as have faith, and do righteous deeds, and join together in the mutual teaching of truth.' 103: 13

'Then will he be, of those who believe and enjoin patience, and enjoin deeds of kindness and compassion.' 95: 17

Unity of the Islamic Umma

The religion of God has always been one and the same. The Qur'an invites believers to remain in unity:

'The same religion He has established for you as that which He enjoined on Noah, which we have sent by inspiration to you, and that We enjoined on Abraham, Moses, and Jesus: Namely, that you should remain steadfast in religion and establish it, and make no divisions therein.'

Muslims should form one single and indivisible entity. They all have the same vision and all have the same goals. They ought to strive to abide by Islamic precepts. In such an ideal model homogeneity leads to unity.

This unity is defined in the Qur'anic text:

'Verily, this Umma of yours is but one Umma, and I am your Lord: therefore, worship you Me.' 12: 25

Brotherhood among Muslims is one factor that unifies Muslims:

'The believers are but brethren.' 49: 10

'O you who believe,' and remember with gratitude God's favour on you, for you were enemies and He joined your hearts with love, so that by His favour you became brethren, and you were on the brink of fire, and He saved you from it.' 3: 102-3

The qualities of cooperation and solidarity to do what is right and shun what is wrong consolidate relations among Muslims:

'Help one another in righteousness and piety.

But do not help one another in sin and transgression: and fear God: for God is strict in punishment.' 5: 2

Muslims ought not fall into dispute:

'Be not like those who are divided amongst themselves and fall into disputation after receiving clear signs: for them is a dreadful penalty.' 3: 105

'Be not among those who join gods with God, those who split up their religion, and become sects, each party rejoicing in that which is with itself.' 30: 32

It ought to be the active effort of every Muslims to keep fastened to the rope of God, by keeping to belief:

'And hold fast, all together, by the rope of God, and do not divide amongst yourselves.' 3: 103

The dictum of Muhammad mentions the same idea of a pact unity among Muslims:

'The believers are like a compact and solid construction, if any part of the construction collapses then the other parts will suffer as well.' (Authentic Hadith mentioned by Muslim and Bukhari)

The Islamic structure of is a homogenous where disbelievers (in Islam) are not members of the Islamic Umma, though they may live within its boundaries in a free way and practice their own belief.

While brotherhood, cooperation and solidarity are the duty as well as responsibility of every Muslim, unity of worship, practice of what is good and shunning what is evil are the ultimate goals.

A permanent administration to manage the Muslims' affairs is matched by a standing and permanently strong armed forces. The Umma must display full and strong preparedness for dissuasive defensive policies. The Qur'an invites Muslims to make ready their utmost force:

'And against them (the unbelievers) make ready your strength to the utmost of your power.' 13: 60

'Truly the best of men for you to employ is the man who is strong and trustworthy.' 28: 26

Transgression is forbidden in Islam. No Muslim or Muslims are allowed to transgress against each other nor against non-Muslims:

'Fight in the way of God against those who fight against you, but begin no hostilities. God certainly does not love aggressors.' 2: 190

Fear is only due to God and nothing else:

'And fear Him, and fear none but God.' 33: 39

'Fear not men, but fear me.' 5: 44

'This day those who disbelieve are in despair of (ever harming) your religion; so do not fear them but fear Me! This day have I perfected your religion for you and completed My favour unto you, and have chosen Islam for you as the Religion.' 5: 3

Relations with non-Muslims

In no way Muslims are to force anyone to believe or to become Muslim. Men are free to do what they want and they are held to account for their deeds only by God:

'Therefore give admonition, for you are (the messenger) one to admonish. You are not one to have control over them. And if any turn away and reject God, God shall punish him with the greatest punishment, for to Us shall be their return; then it shall be for Us to call them to account.' 88: 21-26

The attitudes of Muslims towards non-Muslims can be observed on three different levels defined with precision in the Qur'an. The difference between these levels is decided by the attitude of non-Muslims toward Muslims. These three levels can be classified in the following manner:

A. Friendly attitude

B. Neutral attitude

C. Hostile attitude

Friendly attitude: example of the first category of attitude is ascribed in the Qur'anic text to the Christians:

'And nearest among men in love to the believers will you find those who say, "We are Christians": for amongst these are men devoted to learning and men who have renounced the world, and they are arrogant not (to belief). And when they listen to the revelation received by the messenger, you will see their eyes overflowing with tears, for they recognize the truth: they pray: "Our Lord, we believe, write us down among the witnesses. What cause can we have not to believe in God and the truth which has come to us, seeing that we long for our Lord to admit us to the company of the righteous?" And for this their prayer has God rewarded them with Gardens, with rivers flowing underneath- their eternal home. Such is the recompense of those who do good.' 5: 85-88

The attitude of Muslims in the Qur'an towards the People of the Book (Jews and Christians) is prescribed in the following manner:

'And do not argue with the People of the Book except with the best means, unless it be with those of them who transgress: But say: "We believe in the revelation which has come down to us and in which came down to you: Our God and your God is One; and it is unto Him we submit ourselves as Muslims."' 29: 46

The Qur'an prescribes further for Muslims how to deal with the People of the Book and the criterion of their relations with them:

'Say (O messenger): "O People of the Book, come to common terms between us and you: that we worship none but God; that we associate no partners with Him; that we do not take, from among ourselves, lords and patrons other than God." If they then turn away, then say: "Bear witness that we are Muslims".' 3: 64

Neutral attitude: The attitude of Muslims toward those who are not hostile against them is prescribed in the following manner:

'God does not forbid you, with regard to those who do not fight you for your faith nor drive you out of your homes, from dealing kindly and justly with them, for indeed God loves those who are just.' 60: 8

Inimical attitude: The attitude of Muslims towards those who have enmity towards them and fight them for their belief, and turn them out of their homes is to defend themselves and fight against them and, above all, not to take them as friends and protectors:

'God forbids you only those who fight you for your faith and have driven you out of your homes and helped to drive you out that you make friends and protectors of them. Whoever takes them as friends and protectors are those who are wrong-doers.' 60: 8

The enemies of God are the enemies of the Muslims. Muslims are commanded not to take them as friends and protectors:

'O you who believe! Take not My enemies and yours as friends and protectors offering them love, even though they have rejected the truth that has come to you.' 60: 1

The Qur'an informs the Muslims of the attitude of some of the People of the Book and the attitude Muslims ought toward them:

'It is never the wish of those who rejected (belief in Islam) among the people of the Book, or that of the pagans, that anything good should come down to you from your Lord. But God will choose for His mercy whom He will.' 2: 105

'A large number of the people of the Book wish they could turn you back to disbelief after you have believed, through envy, after the truth became manifest to them. But forgive and overlook, till God accomplish His purpose; for God has power over all things.' 2: 109

The Qur'an informs Muslims of the inimical attitude of certain category of people namely the Jews and the idolaters:

'You will find the most vehement of mankind in hostility to the believers (Muslims) the Jews and the idolaters.' 5: 82

'It is never the wish of those who rejected (Islam) among the people of the Book, nor of the pagans, that anything good should come down to you from your Lord.' 2: 105

'A large number of the People of the Book wish they could turn you back to infidelity after you have believed, from selfish envy, after the truth has become manifest unto them: but forgive and overlook, till God accomplish His purpose. For God has power over all things.' 2: 109

War and peace in Islam

Muslims are commanded to invite to the way of God, should they do so, in the best peaceful manner possible. Three conditions are specified in this respect: the means of wisdom, reasoning out in the nest of ways and good sermon:

'Invite to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good sermon, and reason with them in the best of ways, for your Lord knows best of him who goes astray and He knows best of him who goes aright.' 16: 125

Muslims constituting the Islamic Umma seek peace and are commanded not to commit acts of transgression:

'And do not transgress, for God loves not those who transgress.' 2: 190

'Help you one another in righteousness and piety, but do not help one another in sin and transgression: and fear God for God is strict in punishment.' 5: 2

The condition of fighting in the Qur'anic text is strictly restricted to a defensive war against those who fight against Muslims or take possession of their properties. The principle of waging war in Islam is defensive and offensive. It is only declared when Muslims are aggressed or their properties are taken unjustly. Transgression is met by defensive attitude:

'If any one transgresses against you, then transgress you likewise against him.' 2: 192

War is waged by all Muslims against those who commit aggression against them. All out war is the mode of defensive war in Islam:

'Fight the disbelievers all together as they fight you all together.' 9: 39

With this text there is no place for interpretation employed by some exegetes as (fard 'ayn and fard kifaya), where only it is supposed that a faction of Muslims suffices to defend the Islamic Umma.

Fighting against the aggressing enemy is prescribed for Muslims in the Qur'an. The texts inform us of the likely Muslims' reactions of abstaining from fighting in the cause of God:

'Fighting is prescribed for you, though it is hateful unto you, but you may dislike a thing which is good for you, and may love a thing which is bad for you, but God knows and you do not know.' 2: 216

'O you who believe! Whoso of you becomes a renegade from his religion, God will bring a people whom He loves and who love Him humble toward believers, stern toward disbelievers, striving in the cause of God, and fearing not the blame of any blamer.' 5: 54

Worldly life is exchanged for the hereafter in compensation:

'Let those fight in the cause of God who sell this worldly life for the hereafter.' 4: 74

Distinction in fighting is made in the Qur'an between those who fight in the cause of God and those who fight in the cause of other than God:

'Those who believe, fight in the cause of God, and those who disbelieve fight in the cause of evil: So fight you against the friends of Satan.' 4: 76

The exchange of felicity in the hereafter for worldly life is based totally on a promise, specified in the Qur'anic text:

'Not equal are those who believe who sit behind and receive no hurt, and those who strive and fight in the cause of God with their property and their persons. God has conferred a grade higher on those who strive and fight with their property and persons more than those who sit behind.' 4: 95

'To him who fights in the cause of God, whether he is slain or gets victory, We shall give him a great reward.' 4: 74

'If you are slain, or die, in the cause of God, forgiveness and mercy from God are far better than all they could amass.' 3: 157

The idea of Jihad (Arb. striving, putting effort, to endeavour) in Islam is defined as follows:

'O you who believe! Shall I lead you to a bargain that you will save you from a grievous penalty? You believe in God and His messenger, and you strive with your property and your persons: that will be best for you, if you but knew. He shall forgive your sins, and admit you to gardens, beneath which rivers flow, and good mansions in gardens of eternity: and that is indeed the supreme achievement.' 61: 10

And also in the following text:

'God has purchased of the believers their persons and their property; for theirs (in return) is the garden: that they fight in the cause of God, and slay and are slain: a promise binding on Him in truth in the Torah, the Evangel, and the Qur'an: and who is more faithful to his covenant than God? Then rejoice in the bargain which you have concluded: and that is the supreme achievement.' 9: 111

The Qur'an informs of an immediate life after death awarded in paradise for those who are killed for the cause of God. Such a direct reward refers to those who merit it who do not have to wait for judgment on the final day, and shall not be judged according to their deeds in their worldly life. The criterion of judgment to earn felicity in paradise or to earn punishment in hell fire is no more valid. One's sins are washed away immediately and a proof of his ultimate belief is established, once and for all, by offering oneself for the cause of God. No more evidence can be offered by the individual person for his, or her, belief with total sacrifice.

Death for the sake of God is defined in the Qur'an as a definite proof of belief. Thereupon, the final reward is instantly delivered:

'Think not of those who are slain for the cause of God as dead. But they are living, finding their sustenance in the presence of their Lord. They rejoice in the bounty provided by God.' 3: 169

Reasons for the defensive war permitted in Islam are spelled out in the following terms:

'To those against whom war is waged, permission is given (to fight), because they are wronged- and verily God is most powerful for their aid- (they are) those who have been expelled from their homes in defiance of right- (for no cause) except that they say, 'our lord is God.' 22: 39-40

Fighting is permitted on the condition that non-Muslims wage war against Muslims for their belief. When fighting is engaged then Muslims are commanded to fight courageously and fiercely:

'When you meet the disbelievers (in fight), smite at their necks; when you have thoroughly subdued them: bind a bond firmly (on them).' 47: 5

'And slay them whenever you catch them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out.' 2: 191

'If you gain mastery over them in war, disperse with them and those who follow them that they may remember.' 8: 57

Fighting must be continued until the enemy seizes to be a threat and justice is once and for all is restored:

'And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in God.' 2: 193

If the aggression of the disbelievers ceases, bringing end to the combat and halting the war, Muslims are commanded to cease their war, provided that rights are restored and they do not have further menace:

'But if they cease, let there be no hostility, except to those who practice oppression and transgress.' 2: 193

'But if they cease, God is forgiving and merciful.' 2: 192

'But if they incline towards peace, then do you also incline towards peace and put your trust in God: For he is the One that hears and knows all things.' 8: 61

'Then if they withdraw from you but fight you not, and send you peace, then God has opened no way for you (to keep war against them).' 4: 90

War among Muslims should be avoided but if two parties go into a war conflict then the Qur'an and the Sunna must be applied as arbitration among the conflicting parties. If one of the belligerent parties does not conform to Islamic Shari'a then the whole Islamic Umma should fight against the deviating party from Islamic Shari'a until Islamic law is restored. Then peace and justice should be maintained:

'And if two parties of the believers fall into fighting then make peace among them. But if one party of them transgresses the other, then fight you (all) that which does wrong till it returns unto the ordinance of God, then, if returns, make peace between them justly, and act equitably, for God loves the equitable.' 49: 10

Treaties in Islam

The Islamic Umma can enter into treaties with other states according to dictates of Islam. The Umma may not break a treaty unless the other party breaks the conditions of the treaty promulgated by the two parties. Muslims must fulfil their commitments of the treaties:

'Fulfil the covenant of God when you have entered into it, and do not break your oaths after you have confirmed them: indeed you have made your God your surety; for God knows all that you do.' 16: 91

'For the worst of beasts in the sight of God are those who deny Him: they will not believe. They are those who with whom you did make a covenant, but they break their covenant every time, and they have no fear of God.' 8: 55-56

If evidence of treachery on the part of the unbelievers, whom the Muslims entered into pact with, then the Islamic Umma can denounce their pact of treaty with them:

'If you fear treachery from any group, throw back (their covenant) to them (so as to be) on equal terms: for God does not love the treacherous.' 8: 58

Prisoners of war

Muslims in a state of war may not take prisoners of war until they subdue the enemy. The Qur'an specifies this act:

No messenger should have prisoners of war until he has subdued the land thoroughly. You seek the temporal goods of this world; but you should seek the hereafter.' 8: 67

Treatment of prisoners of war should be administered in the best of manners:

'The righteous' they feed, for the love of God, the indigent, the orphan, and the captive (of war), (saying), "We feed you for the sake of God alone: No reward do we desire from you, nor thanks. We only fear a day of distressful wrath from the side of our Lord.' 77: 8-10

The practice of Muhammad in dealing with prisoners of war in Medina was in accordance with the Qur'anic command. Prisoners of war were released from captivity by rendering honourable services to Muslims like teaching their children for a fixed term, for imprisonment is not allowed in Islam. Likewise, no hostage taking is allowed in Islam. Such practices as hostage taking and terrorism are completely against Islamic principles and considered to be criminal actions punishable by Islamic law.

All out war engaging all Muslims is prescribed in defensive wars against disbelievers who fight Muslims for their religion, e.g. wars against Muslims at the time of Muhammad in Medina 620-632.

In this chapter we have discussed the political structure of the Islamic Umma. The underlying principles of such a structure refers to the total authority of God and equality of Muslims in sharing power in decision making. Distribution of power is an equal right and responsibility of every Muslim in the management of the management of public affairs of the Umma. While an administration is primordial to implement Shari'a a standing strong armed forces is equally important. Muslims conduct their affairs by mutual consultation among all Muslims. No delegation of power is permitted view the total responsibility of every individual Muslim.

We turn now to see whether or not, in the sources of Islam and particularly with reference to the Qur'an, there is a social structure. If such a structure can be inferred from the Qur'anic text, then what are its principles and how is it depicted?

The Political Structure of the Islamic Umma